So welcome to the fourth session of this year for the course Aplicaciones
Semánticas de la Lengua Inglesa, Diccionarios y Ontologías. I don't know
if you already read, probably you have already read the technique either on
the course where you have the PDFs available or through the book where it
is a bit very, very slightly different. Today we are going to go into the
practical things. First, Unit 4 deals with lexicography, lexicography as
opposed to lexicology, etc. So this is a very interesting unit. I don't
know if you have any doubts. I will go quite quickly through it because
it's very clear. I think it is quite clear. On the book itself, but there
are always issues that we can solve because it is practical oriented. I
think it is quite clear and complete, but I will try to solve all the
doubts you may have today, OK? And otherwise we can always ask any doubts
in the forum. OK, so what are we going to see today? Notions about the
writing of dictionaries, the art of art and craft is considered an art and
a craft, the art and craft of writing a dictionary and all the problems
involved in it is lexicography. And also we are going to see the links
between the shape of a dictionary entry and the different theories of
meaning. So we are going to also philosophize a bit about this art and
craft, which is the art and craft of lexicography and also corpus compus.
So we are going to see the compilations, the difference between these and
ethesaurus, etc. In the PowerPoint that you can download when you do the
presentation in an asynchronous way, you have access to the links here
through the blackboard. I don't have this access, but I highly recommend
this web page, together with the web page and web sources that are included
in the book. OK. So we are going to further deal with that. So lexicography
is an art of compiling dictionaries. It is different from lexicology. What
is the difference between lexicology and lexicography? Both have the same
root, the same part of lexico, which means word. But graffi is writing and
logi is science. OK. So lexicology and lexicography will be that one is the
science of words, and the other one is the craft of words. So it is the
practical application of lexicology, lexicology with the study of words,
and also the words as part of a system, as part of a bigger system, which
is sentences of our language. However, the way of approaching lexicography
is different. The way of approaching words in lexicography is different
because we focus on each word individually. Also, we consider them parts of
a system because, for instance, we can say, for instance, driver. Driver is
the action of a driver, the agent of a driving, and therefore it is
connected to drive. Obviously. But in this case, we approach the word
driver as the center of everything we will develop. OK. So we are going
first to prioritize, to prioritize, prioritize the word. And this is the
unit we are going to focus on in lexicography. However, in lexicography, we
will have a more general approach, more systematic approach. Systematic
approach means that we are going to focus on the word. We are going to
prioritize words as part of a system. In the end, the study is the same,
but one is the theory, which is later on going to be helpful for the
practice, the practice of lexicography, which is putting it into practice.
That is why lexicography is also called lexicology, applied lexicology. You
know the word apply. Applied is also the same. It is the same as practical.
That's why we have linguistics and applied linguistics. Applied linguistics
is everything that contributes to the application of linguistic theory. So
it can be the teaching and learning of languages, or it can be other issues
such as here, applied semantics in this course. What we see is how the
study of language, of lexicon, lexicon can derive into practical
applications. Which is writing a dictionary, compiling a corpus, compiling
a thesaurus, etc. So one is the theory and the other is craft and art and
craft. The theory is always first, obviously. So we always use theory in
order to develop our applications. Okay. So it is so hard dealing with
theory when we analyze, for instance, when we study theoretical
linguistics. Sometimes we can find this very abstract or very how arid,
not, no, no, it is sometimes difficult to see the further applications of
some, but they are there. So we need them. We need them. We need them in
order for, for, for them to be applied into our crafts. Okay. So the word
dictionary was first used in dictionaries in the 13th century already. So
already the time when lexicography started to be developed. Okay. And later
on, the first book published under the title English until the English
title, and it was published in the 16th century. So this, let's say, old
discipline as compared to what is considered to be modern linguistics or
contemporary linguistics you may have studied in the, in the degree is from
the late 19th century, beginning of the 20th century with Saussure and the
analysis of the sign and the writings that his students, his lectures. So
this is considered the beginning of modern language linguistics. However,
lexicography and lexicography comes from sometimes we have first like the
arts and craft as with lexicography, and then comes this, the theory. There
is a need to compile words and to write them down, but we realize we need
some theoretical underground in order conventions and agreements and agree
on certain concepts so that we have an homogeneous compilation
standardized. That's why standards and conventions are important. Okay. So
it can be, it can be that first we start with the compilation and then when
we start to compile. Yes. What happened here? They start to say, oh wait,
this has to be considered a different type of word than this other type of
word. How we call the, how do we call this word? How would we call this
other word? How we categorize it? So one part of the science fits and vice
versa. So what was the first purpose of dictionaries of lexicography in the
middle? Glossing text and employing synonyms. So they already start
started. Well, first it was this, this need so that a practical application
lexicography comes from a need in society. And then comes the theory, which
will help open further developing the art and craft of lexicography. So
what is this? Let's theorize about the relationship between lexicography
and linguistic theory. So once we have worked in this for centuries, then
we have to reflect about what lexicography is. What is the meaning of
lexicography? What we do it for? And what are we going to include from
linguistic theory into the world? What is the word of lexicography? And
here comes oppression, which very recently, who very recently developed
some principles of lexicographical work. So as you see, they are very
recent. So it is an ongoing art and craft. Okay. It's an ongoing discipline
as everything in general. So what are the principles? The first one is. As
you. In the pattern of the concept underline lexical and grammatical
meanings of a given language. This sounds complicated, but it can be
summarized as the idea and the underlying idea of this principle is
language is a conceptual phenomenon. So words express concepts and concepts
are meanings. Concepts are reflected meaning. They depend on the idea that
surrounds a certain language. An example, you know, is the word that is
used to define the this type of rain that takes place in the north of
Spain, like in the in the Basque country. Or in Galicia, which is not in
droughts, but a kind of foggy rain. This is Shirimiri. Shirimiri is a word
that is used in the north, in the Basque country, in the north of Spain.
Why? Because this is reality that has to be that is conceptualized and has
to be named. But we don't have this word in English. Okay. In English, we
have. It is the same as with all many words that we have in French to talk
about bread, types of bread. This also happens in Belgium where I've been
living. I was living there for almost 10 years. And when you go to a
bakery, you have, I'm not exaggerating, 20 types of bread, 20 types of
names for different types of bread. Whereas in Spain it becomes, it's
starting to evolve. But until very recently, until a decade ago, we had.
That was so. So this is the conceptualization. We have to first see the
concept, the conceptualization that underlies a certain word. Okay. Going
to affect the word itself. No, this is a principle that guides
lexicographical work. Is it going to be reflective? In the Middle Ages, did
they reflect about these principles? No. But are they important? Yes.
Because they give a system, they systematize, they structure the word.
Okay. So for a word to be adequate, we need to follow certain principles.
Okay. Or we need to do a checklist of this, whether these principles are
met or not. So this first principle has to do with. Analyzing the
conceptualizations that underlie a certain, the meanings given in a
language to a certain word. The second principle, good morning to the
newcomers. The second principle is integrating linguistic description in
dictionary entries. So that entries in a dictionary are sensitive to
grammatical rules. So what does this mean? That we need to have consistent
grammatical, grammar rules in a language and in a dictionary. And in every
dictionary, depending on the language we are describing and compiling, we
will have different rules. We always have a grammatical, a grammar
appendix, not always, but in big dictionaries, we will have an appendix for
grammar and we will be consistent. So for instance, if we decide that we
are going to describe transitivity, or intransitivity, we have to have
these grammar rules and be consistent all through our dictionary. It is as
simple as this. Okay. So we need to integrate linguistic description,
grammatical rules in a dictionary. This is a principle. Okay. Another
principle is searching for systematicity in lexicon. As manifested in
various classes of lexemes, such as searching for lexicographic types,
lexicographic semantics, lexico semantic parallels, lexical paradigms,
regular polysemy. So this sounds very complex because it is very
theoretical, but it is in simple words. The same as with linguistic
description. Certain paradigms, certain types of words have to be described
systematically. Such as, for instance, polysemy. Polysemy is a... lexical
phenomenon. Are we going to include it in a dictionary? Yes. Is this
systematic? Yes. So do we have certain lexico-semantic paradigms in a
certain language, which is that this language is very polysemous. It
includes a lot of words to identify the same concept or meaning. Yes. So in
this dictionary, we are going to focus on regular polysemy, for instance.
Regular polysemy, monosomy, homophonous words, etc. So there are... We have
to be systematic with our principles. This means that we have to take into
account lexicology and the principles of language, basically linguistic
principles when we are compiling a dictionary. Okay? And not overlook them.
For instance, if we have a polysemous word, we have to say that this word
is polysemous and identify the different meanings this word has. So it is
as simple as this. Even if it looks here very complex, it is just not
letting information out of a certain word. That's what it means. And what
does it mean being systematic? Systematic means always coherent, always
applying the same principles. It is the same to all the words we integrate,
okay? In that dictionary. The fourth principle, emphasizing meticulous
studies of separate word senses in all of their linguistically relevant
properties. For instance, this is also very complex. It sounds very
complex, but it is as simple as identifying for each word its properties.
Semantic properties that are grammatically relevant, for instance, whether
a word is an adjective, whether a word is a noun, or an adverb, or a
preposition. This is just being meticulous and identifying. A word can have
an entry as an adjective, an entry as a noun. For instance, cook can be a
person or it can be a verb. So we have to be meticulous and emphasize the
grammatically relevant features of this word because we are going to be
able to distinguish between the adjective and the noun, okay? And include
it in separate entries. This is the fourth principle. And finally, the last
principle, you can see that all these principles are very interrelated,
okay? And the fifth principle is formulating rules governing the
interaction of lexical and grammatical meanings. So, synonymy, these are
the rules. The rules governing the interaction of lexical and grammatical
meaning are synonymy, antonymy, hyperonymy, hyponymy. These are the rules.
So, when we have the rules, we take them into account and we have to
identify these in words and take this into account when we design or
include a word with its entry, with all the features of this word in the
entry, which we will see now when we continue. So, regarding this point
also, here there is a distinction between lexicology, lexicography,
terminology and terminography. We have seen at the beginning of this
session the difference between lexicology and lexicography. So, lexicology
is the science of the word, lexicography is the art and craft of studying
words and compiling words, etc. So, lexicography would be applied
lexicology. And in the same way we have terminology which is an aspect of
lexicology. It is related to lexicology. Why? You remember what terminology
is as opposed to lexicology. Probably, if you have seen already the book or
studied a bit further, you have been able to see that terminology has to do
with specific type of language, which is terms. What we saw also in
previous unit, terminology deals with language for specific purposes. For
instance, terminology for engineering, linguistic, the terminology in
linguistics, itself, or medical terms. These are specific words that belong
to a specific semantic field. A semantic field. That's what is called
language for specific purposes. So, you have seen this, for instance, in
the degree when you have a subject, an optional, probably, an optional
course, which is a language for social scientists or language for
psychology, English, for example, English for law, for lawyers. Right? This
is terminology. There, you study language for specific purposes.
Terminology, then, is the same as lexicology in the sense that it's the
science or the theory that creates the framework for the art and craft of
compiling terms, which is terminography, which is the applied part, but
dealing with specific terms. So, lexicography would be the art and craft
and terminography would be also the art and craft. The difference between
then lexicography and the difference between terminography is that in
lexicography we go from we use an onomasiological approach, which is, in
terminography, we so much about the concept from the very beginning, we
take a semasiological approach, which means we start by the term and then
we go to the concept. So it is a very different way to approach the study
of language, although it is true that in practice they are very
interrelated. Sometimes in terminographical work we also have to apply an
onomasiological approach, and in lexicographical work we also have to apply
a semasiological approach. That's why I include the arrows, because they
are very interconnected. At the end of this presentation and also in the
book you have some webpages where you have term banks and also chapter six,
which is not compulsory for this course but it's very interesting, is
written by one of the biggest important terminographers in Europe, which is
Veronique Hoste who is a professor of Ghent University and she has a very
powerful and a very important research group which is a terminology and
translation technology team and they are busy with not only the theory have
been working for instance in the development of a terminology term bank for
Yandenun, which is one of the biggest engineering companies in the world
and they have done for instance the Panama Channel, they are working now in
Dubai. So what happens with this is a Belgian company that needs a
terminology banks, term banks , bankos de terminos, bankos de datos, pero
bankos de terminos in order to be able to handle knowledge more
efficiently. For instance what happens that we may have for one single
concept sometimes we have five terms. So what do they do? They lemmatize
this, they say okay this is the main term and these are the variants and in
order for instance in the design this is very helpful to economize and to
handle knowledge and data efficiently. So what the Panama Channel? I don't
know. So this user manual for an engineer an engineer already knows these
terms but they need to be economical so they identify in all the terms that
are related to this type of engineering which I have no idea about and they
will find the most frequently used term. This is the canonical term and
they are going to use this canonical term all over the manual in order to
make it easier for readers to identify. It's also easy for instance when we
have to deal with translation work. When we have to translate the manual
from one language to the other terminography is very important. So these
are some of the uses of terminographical work. That's why one of the most
important terminology in Europe is developed by the European Union. And you
have the web page at the end of the presentation. Lexicography is very
different because lexicography doesn't care so much about economy.
Lexicography is very interested in compiling and recording every unit of
language that takes place in a language and recording it and representing
it and giving it its adequate importance. So the interests are the same
because they want to compile words and compile terms and be able to handle
data. But their interests, let's say, and the purposes are a bit different.
OK? But I hope it is clear the difference for you between the theoretical
part, lexicology and lexicography and terminology and in 10 years, there is
a terminologist that decides that using canonical terms is not appropriate
because this is part of life. Science changes, evolves together with
society. And depending on the view of the world we have, then we will apply
this to our applied sciences, to the And now we are going to see what the
thesaurus is. A thesaurus, here you have a web page, one of the most famous
definitions. But you have many. Also in the book you have several
definitions for a thesaurus. You have a book of words or information about
a particular field or set of concepts. Especially a book of words and their
synonyms. This is, well, it doesn't give such a very clarifying definition.
I like more a bit the second entry. A list of subjects, headings or
descriptors usually with a cross-reference system for using the
organization of a collection of documents for reference and retrieval. This
is complex, but in other words, I'm going to put it in simple words. A
thesaurus organizes words according to their meanings. A very much easier
definition is the one given by Halliday. Halliday, who is the father of
systemic functional grammar, as you may know. A thesaurus is just the
compilation of words that are similar in meaning. So, it is an
onomatological word because it goes from the meaning to the word. Okay? For
instance, we will for instance the word color. The idea of color, the
concept of color. We are going to compile all the words that have to do
with the concept of color. We will compile them together. And then we will
have hyponymy, hyperonymy, we will have general concepts, more specific
concepts. And from there we will see the words that derive that belong to
this concept. Okay? I have also a definition, a control list of terms
linked together by semantic relationships. So, this is the important part
of Thesaurus. Thesaurus is linked by the meaning. The meaning is the
underlying and guiding principle of the design of Thesaurus. And these
semantic relationships are equivalence, hierarchy or associative
relationship. So, it is a kind of like when we create a concept map,
conceptual map. Instead of a terminological bank, a term bank, we create a
concept, conceptual map. This is the part of Thesaurus. This would be
similar to Thesaurus. This is different from a dictionary because in a
dictionary, each entry stands by itself as an independent piece of word.
Even if under the entry of each word, we will have grammatical information,
as we have seen, grammatical, semantic information, morphological
information, etymological information, as we will see now, which will help
us to link the word to other words. But the entries are arranged different
For instance, I recommend you go into the page and look for words. You will
see how interesting it is to already have from one concept or meaning or
from another concept or from another So, you list of that have listed
alphabetically that appear in a practical domain of knowledge. For example,
if you want to write a book in you have to write a book in English. So, you
have to write a book English or any book can have a glossary. It can help
readers to understand certain terms that are less common than general
terms. And you have here examples of digital glossaries. They can be either
bilingual, multilingual, monolingual, the same as the salary. The salary
can be also bilingual or monolingual. And what is the difference between a
terminological dictionary or a dictionary but a dictionary which is a
terminological dictionary has the same shape as a dictionary. The
difference between a terminological dictionary and a linguistic or general
dictionary is just the area of knowledge. A terminological dictionary, as
the word itself says, focuses on a specific area of knowledge. For
instance, we can look for a law dictionary or a medicine dictionary,
dictionary for I don't know any specialized area of language can have its
own terminological dictionary. We have also the dictionary for applied
language Carl and Rogers, this is a very common dictionary, have a
dictionary has to do with language education, where they include for
instance all the typical methods that have been used in the teaching of
languages, grammar translation methods, humanistic methods, etc.
alphabetical, also terminological dictionaries. They can be monolingual,
they are general purpose, they can be also bilingual, they can be
multilingual, they can be different types. We have the type perspective, so
there can be diachronic dictionaries or synchronic dictionaries, they can
be also for instance old dictionaries that are based on a specific era of a
language. For instance you have old English dictionaries, middle English
dictionaries, they can also be different according to how they treat
entries. So we have dictionaries that are if we print them like a giant and
there are pocket dictionaries. So then in pocket dictionaries we will have
a very strict selection of information which according to Cosserio refers
to the linguistic differentiation among use, norm, discourse. So it can be
dictionaries that are more for linguists themselves where we have more
specialized information or a dictionary that is made for primary school
students. Okay, that's the linguistic level and they can be bilingual,
monolingual, etc. So how we design entries, dictionary entries? This is
called lemmatization. So when we see this word, it is just this.
Lemmatization is the art and craft of identifying a word, an entry for a
dictionary. So from all the words that are part of a concept, which one is
going to be the lemma, which is the headword, this is lemmatization. For
instance, driver, we have seen this in previous units, driver, driving,
drivers, drove. These are all the words that belong to the lemma drive.
Okay? Then we will have the parts of a dictionary entry according to
Halliday. They are organized as follows. In general, pronunciation or
sometimes they have an alphabetic notation or phonological notation, part
of a speech, its etymology, so historical origin and derivational features
which we saw in the dictionary. So, recommend you just go to different
dictionaries either online or this is one of the exercises for this unit
which is as simple as comparing different dictionaries and then selecting
according to this criteria having a critical view towards these
dictionaries and seeing which one is according to you better. So, you can
yourself be critical and you are also able to identify whether an entry is
well written or not, etc. Sometimes a definition in the book who wrote this
unit says that it is very difficult she reflects about how some theorists
reflect about how difficult it is to write objective definitions. So, it
would be very interesting if you compared the different definitions of
maybe a complex word or an abstract word or even an objective word in
different dictionaries. In Spanish we have a certain word. But in England
or in the United States, etc., we have several many different press
companies that write dictionaries. The most famous ones, as you know,
Oxford, Cambridge, etc. So, maybe you can take a look at word mesmerizing
how it is defined and how it is codified. We have Oxford Learner's
Dictionary, for instance, this is an example. We have a Dilemma in all
types. Here, they even give extra information, as you see. They give
information about the level in which this word has to be learned if you are
a second language student. We can have more logical grammatical
information, the plural form, and the definition. And here you have a lot
of examples. And here we have cognates, cognates with variations, which is
also a very interesting thing, how it is used in collocations. Collocations
are examples of use that are higher level, of course, because they don't
have collocations, don't have a literal meaning. Best man, as you know, is
the person that accompanies the groom in a wedding. Best man is like the,
how do we say in Spanish? El testigo, maybe. This is a word that doesn't,
is not literally el mejor hombre. That's why it is called a collocation.
So, in this case, it also gives information about collocations. And here if
we click, probably we will have examples of So, this dictionary, for
instance, is very interesting. You can maybe compare to other dictionaries
and see what they include. And we have, what is the difference
philosophizing a bit about lexicography in lexicography about dictionaries?
The difference between meaning and is that the meaning of a dictionary
language that is used to represent meaning. Dictionary definition is a
definition as it with everyday language which is encoded or included in a
dictionary entry. Meaning definition is more what role and reference
grammar will do, functional grammar, generative grammar when we include
it's more abstract meaning and it tries to capture the underlying meaning
of certain words. Okay? And we are going now to see a bit of the fifth
point of the book which is corpus corpora and corpus annotation. Dictionary
writing needs corpus analysis. Corpus analysis is very important because we
can see where we of corpora but an example is the coca corpus, the
contemporary corpus of American English. We have also the British National
Corpus but I don't know if it is annotated corpus. An annotated corpus is
just a corpus that has been enhanced with linguistic information. I have
myself, for instance, when you do the final degree work, well, I have done
myself for my own academic research, I developed for instance a corpus. I'm
going to give you a personal example of how simple it is the concept of
annotating a corpus. I did for several years, I still do, this is my last
year, of a corpus with errors of students of Spanish in Belgium. Belgian
students of Spanish as a second language that are studying Spanish to
become translators in Spanish and in another language. So after doing some
tasks that we have asked them to do throughout the years, they send us the
text and I have compiled a corpus of their texts, their writings and I have
annotated that corpus. So I have decided to mark with colors which is a
manual annotation. Nowadays we have automatic annotation with all the
advances of linguistic technology, etc. But I have done it myself in order
to develop an intuition about their errors. Later on once I tag the corpus
or annotate the corpus which is the same annotation and tagging is
basically the same. Sometimes it is used differently but I tend to use them
interchangeably, annotation and tagging. So I have annotated this corpus
which means that if I see that they do a lexical mistake I use in word
yellow. I mark it in yellow. If it is a grammatical mistake I mark it in
blue. If it is a spelling or interference I mark it in other colors. So I
have compiled the corpus throughout the years of hundreds of texts. Maybe I
have 500 texts of students of the same task with different annotations. And
then I go one annotation to the other. What does a corpus It is lexical
error, grammatical error, morphological error, semantic error, etc. This is
helpful for me in order to see the frequency of the errors, the type of
error and we have developed the taxonomy of errors for B2 Spanish students
in Belgium, etc. So this is just annotation. Annotation can be done
computationally, automatically, manually, etc. And it's easy later on to
retrieve information from all these corpus. And the various types of
linguistic information it can be any type of annotation. Imagine you want
to see whether nowadays, for instance, you want to see in newspapers the
use of gender in Spanish because now it is so common this thing of using
etc. You want to see how gender is approached in media as compared to how
it is approached in social media, for instance. You want to see how the to
you. depending on the type of linguistic information you want to analyze,
you will annotate this on the corpus, on the different instances which is
this corpus, okay? So, there are different annotation formats that are
later on going to be helpful in a corpus when you do corpus analysis or
corpus studies in order to later on retrieve information automatically.
And, some of these standards are the COCOA reference. COCOA reference is
one of the standardized references or standard types of annotation that was
used in order later on as I see to make machine readable test and later on
be able to retrieve information. I have myself for my work, I don't use the
COCOA reference but it will be common in corpora. For instance, you have
some examples, very simple examples here. For instance, they use these
angle brackets to mean a reference, an entity for instance. The same would
stand for the author's name, for instance. If you want to retrieve from a
corpus author's names in literature work and you decide that this is what
you want to look for in a text or in a corpus, you say I am going to
include this under a string of words and then a computer program will be
able to extract all this information in the test. I will be able to analyze
the frequency of occurrence or the word in context which is also a typical
use of corpora which is quick, the key word in context. We look for words
and we see in which context they are used. In order to see the speaker's
tendency for instance, how many times is the word used to show with
linguistic data how lexicon is used with the gender approach. Well, I am
putting these examples because they are clear examples. This is very
old-fashioned already. Now we are in other or in other levels. Okay. Today
we tend to look for standardization in encoding. Why? Because it will be
easier for everybody to use the same standards. So, we have the text
encoding a general this markup language the standard generalized markup
language which would make easier not only the annotation in corpora but
annotation and standardization for digital tests on the internet etc. So,
this is the most basic type. I have just given an example. Then part of
speech annotation is the most basic type. The tagging is let's say the same
as annotation. Tagging can be any kind of linguistic information. As I have
given just an example. Types of annotation or tagging part of speech. For
instance, lemmatization is the head form. Lemmatization is the is the basic
principle of dictionary writing. It is important also in a corpus because
in a corpus we also need to look for words and for lemmas, the basic the
head word forms. So, a lemma is the word which includes we have seen this
also in previous units all the inflected words. The process of producing a
list which groups together all forms belonging to each lemma is called
lemmatization. Part of a speech tagging as we have seen and also we have
parsing. Parsing is also called as three banks. So, a parsing is a kind of
higher level of annotation because it has to do with syntactic information.
It includes syntactic relationships, higher level syntactic relationships.
For instance, we can we see here examples of this part of these three banks
which would be the verb keep in the symbols and the psychic. It does not
indicate how many times he kicked it. That is, the verb does not qualify
the category of quantity. In other words, quantity is not a semantic
feature of verbs and this has important parsing effects. For example, the
property quantity in this case would be excluded in the semantic parsing of
the verb. It could be something like including syntactic trees in certain
words. You know the syntactic analysis from degenerative grammarians which
has developed for the general public into the typical trees that we learn
when we are doing primary school or secondary school. It could be something
like this, this parsing. Finally, semantic annotation. We can also find
semantic annotation. This is also a high-level type of annotation. It marks
semantic features, so it's the same as parsing but with semantic features.
Some examples would be this type of annotation. This is an example of
annotation. A low content word would be 0, 0. Plant life in general 1, 3,
0, 1, 0, 0. In this case, let's say we decide to annotate semantic
information with numbers. The relevant point here is that the semantic
categories are represented by H-digit numbers. This was used by Schmidt in
1993. It has a hierarchical structure in the sense that it is made up of
three level categories, which are themselves further subdivided. This is
also included in the book, so because we are running out of time, I'm not
going to develop it so much. Basically, for you to keep in mind is that
semantic annotation is a complex type of annotation. Together with parsing,
it is equivalent to semantic web searches for wikis, blogs, collaborative
writing. This semantic annotation is used for instance, in the semantic
web. By computer analysis, it can be also applied to neural machine
translation in order to identify alignments or synonyms or equivalences in
different languages, etc. Knowledge management. So, we go from the very
basic types of annotation to the higher types of annotation. A corpus is
very important nowadays. Everything is a corpus nowadays. For instance, why
do you think Google Translate is so effective? Because the text that it
uses in order to establish comparisons and equivalences between one
language and the other is the net. The net which has millions and thousands
of millions of instances of language. Before, a corpus was compiled through
extracting texts from the press, from newspapers for instance, or from TV
programs, or a spoken corpus of I don't know what. Nowadays, and we still
have corpora that are like this. For instance, we have the RAE which has
its own corpus. We have a spoken corpora where we still have certain
specific types of tests that are included, that are compiled, but Google
Translate for instance uses the web. The web is its corpus. So obviously
the degree of effectiveness is very high. So have a lot that we to is
happening in the So we have a lot of data that we can use to understand the
data that we So we can use this data to understand the that we want to use
in the data that we are you want to use this data of pragmatics is one
level of linguistic studies that has to do with how speakers use language
in order to influence with their intentions on another person. So we can
obviously annotate a corpus with enough for us for instance focus on the
content listed by McEnery and Wilson the streets there were already hordes
of this program this software this was a revolution when it started in the
90s because it helped even to analyze literary works and seeing for
instance this word imagine they wanted to see what they were doing in the
world and how what they were doing in the world of phenomena here I just
think an example of different types of corpora that I recommend you to
check English corpora imagine this is a news on the web which is called now
has 15 billion words before corpora had 100,000 words now imagine and this
is interesting I included here this screenshot because it already gives
information how to use the corpus itself okay if you go to the corpus it
will give you recommendations on how to handle the corpus okay and they
also give you the volume searches how to look for certain words for
instance your bachelor's thesis with me or another area of the course
related to semantics morphology etc is this tool for corpus linguistics
here you have in this web page not as translators as lexicographers as
sentiment analysts etc a very interesting tool here as i said i included
the europe which are very two interesting terminology tools memoq is also
another if you want to check more about terminology these are the webpages
to look for okay this is all by now i hope you found it interesting that i
i hope i will clarify a bit the concepts of this unit let me know if you
have any doubts questions otherwise i will always be yes i will post it in
the in the class i will post it now you have one of last year available
which i already left i left from the very beginning the once of last year
then you if you are going quicker than i am